Check Sheet - Counting & accumulating data I

Why use it?
To allow a team to systematically record and compile data from historical sources, or observations as they happen, so that patterns and trends can be clearly detected and shown.

What does it do?

• Creates easy-to-understand data that come from a simple, efficient process that can be applied to any key performance areas
• Builds, with each observation, a clearer picture of "the facts" as opposed to the opinions of each team member
• Forces agreement on the definition of each condition or event (every person has to be looking for and recording the same thing)
• Makes patterns in the data become obvious quickly

Cause & Effect / Fishbone Diagram - Find & cure causes, NOT symptoms III

Variations
Traditionally, Cause & Effect Diagrams have been created in meeting setting. The completed "fishbone" is often reviewed by others and/ or confirmed with data collection. A very effective alternative is CEDAC®, in which a large, highly visible, blank fishbone chart is displayed prominently in a work area. Everyone posts both potential causes and solutions on Post-it™ notes in each of the categories. Causes and solutions are reviewed, tested, and posted. This technique opens up the process to the knowledge and creativity of every person in the operation.

Cause & Effect / Fishbone Diagram - Find & cure causes, NOT symptoms II

How do I do it?
1. Select the most appropriate cause & effect format. There are two major formats:

• Dispersion Analysis Type is constructed by placing individual causes within each "major" cause category and them asking of each individual cause "Why does this cause (dispersion) happen?" This question is repeated for the next level of detail until the team runs out of causes. The graphic examples shown in Step 3 of this tool section are based on this format.
• Process Classification Type uses the major steps of the process in place of the major cause categories. The root cause questioning process is the same as the Dispersion Analysis Type.

2. Generate the causes needed to build a Cause & Effect Diagram. Choose one method:

• Brainstorming without previous preparation
• Check Sheets based on data collected by team members before the meeting

3. Construct the Cause & Effect/Fishbone Diagram
a) Place the problem statement in a box on the righthand side of the writing surface.

• Allow plenty of space. Use a flipchart sheet, butcher paper, or a large while board. A paper surface is preferred since the final Cause & Effect Diagram can be moved.

Tip Make sure everyone agrees on the problem statement. Include as much information as possible on the "what," "where," "when," and "how much" of the problem. Use data to specify the problem.

b) Draw major cause categories or steps in the production or service process. Connect them to the "backbone" of the fishbone chart.

Illustration Note: In a Process Classification Type format, replace the major "bone" categories with: "Order Taking," "Preparation," "Cooking," and "Delivery"

• Be flexible in the major cause "bones" that are used. In a Production Process the traditional categories are: Machines (equipment), Methods (how work is done), Materials (components or raw materials), and People (the human element). In a Service Process the traditional methods are: Policies (higher-level decision rules), Procedures (steps in a task), Plant (equipment and space), and People. In both types of processes, Environment (buildings, logistics, and space), and Measurement (calibration and data collection) are also frequently used. There is no perfect set or member of categories. Make them fit the problem.

c) Place the brainstormed or data-based causes in the appropriate category.

• In brainstorming, possible causes can be placed in a major cause category as each is generated, or only after the entire list has been created. Either works well but brainstorming the whole list first maintains the creative flow of ideas without being constrained by the major cause categories or where the ideas fit in each "bone."
• Some causes seem to fit in more than one category. Ideally each cause should be in only one category, but some of the "people" causes may legitimately belong in two places. Place them in both categories and see how they work out in the end.

Tip If ideas are slow in coming, use the major cause categories as catalysis, e.g., "What in 'materials' is causing...?"

d) Ask repeatedly of each cause listed on the "bones," either:

• "Why does it happen?" For example, under "Run out of ingredients" this question would lead to more basic causes such as "Inaccurate ordering," "Poor use of space," and so on.
• "What could happen?" For example, under "Run out of ingredients" this question would lead to a deeper understanding of the problem such as "Boxes," "Prepared dough," "Toppings," and so on.

Tip For each deeper cause, continue to push for deeper understanding, but know when to stop. A rule of thumb is to stop questioning when a cause is controlled by more than one level of management removed from the group. Otherwise, the process could become an exercise in frustration. Use common sense.

e) Interpret or test for root cause(s) by one or more of the following:

• Look for causes that appear repeatedly within or across major cause categories.
• Select through either an unstructured consensus process or one that is structured, such as Nominal Group Technique or Multivoting.
• Gather data through Check Sheeting or other formats to determine the relative frequencies of the different causes.

>>> Continue Reading PART III

Cause & Effect / Fishbone Diagram - Find & cure causes, NOT symptoms I

Why use it?
To allow a team to identify, explore, and graphically display, in increasing detail, all of the possible causes related to a problem or condition to discover its root cause(s).

What does it do?

• Enables a team to focus on the content of the problem, not on the history of the problem or differing personal interests of team members
• Creates a snapshot of the collective knowledge and consensus of a team around a problem. This builds support for the resulting solutions
• Focuses the team on causes, not symptoms

>>> Continue Reading PART II

Brainstorming - Creating bigger & better ideas III

Unstructured
The process is the same as in the structured method except that ideas are given by everyone at any time. There is no need to "pass" since ideas are not solicited in rotation.

Variations
There many ways to stimulate creative team thinking. The common themem among all of them is the stimulation of creativity by taking advantage of the combined brain power of a team. Here are three examples:

• Visual brainstorming. Individuals (or the team) produce a picture of how they see a situation or problem.
• Analogies/free-word association. Unusual connections are made by comparing the problem to seemingly unrelated objects, creatures, or words. For example: "if the problem was an animal, what kind would it be?"
• 6-3-5 method. This powerful, silent method is proposed by Helmut Schlicksupp in his book Creativity Workshop. It is done as follows:
• Based on a single brainstorming issue, each person on the team (usually 6 people) has 5 minutes to write down 3 ideas on a sheet of paper.
• Each person then passes his or her sheet of paper to the next person, who has 5 more minutes to add 3 more ideas that build on the first 3 ideas.
• This rotation is repeated as many times as there are team members, e.g., 6 team members = 6 rotations, 6 sheets of paper, 18 ideas per sheet.

This interesting process forces team members to consciously build on each other's perspectives and input.

Brainstorming - Creating bigger & better ideas II

Structured
1. The central brainstorming question is stated, agreed on, and written down for everyone to see
Be sure that everyone understands the question, issue, or problem. Check this by asking one or two members to paraphrase it before recording it on a flipchart or board.

2. Each team member, in turn, gives and idea. No idea is criticized. Ever!
With each rotation around the team, any member can pass at any time. While this rotation process encourages full participation, it may also heighten anxiety for inexperienced or shy team members.

3. As ideas are generated, write each one in large, visible letters on a flipchart or other writing surface
Make sure every idea is recorded with the same words of the speader, don't interpret or abbreviate. To ensure this, the person writing should always ask the speaker if the idea has been worded accurately.

4. Ideas are generated in turn until each person passes, indicating that the ideas (or members) are exhausted
Keep the process moving and relatively short 5 to 20 minutes works well, depending on how complex the topic is.

5. Review the written list of ideas for clarity and to discard any duplicates
Discard only ideas that are virtually identical. It is often important to preserve subtle differences that are revealed in slightly different wordings.


>>> Continue Reading PART III

Brainstorming - Creating bigger & better ideas I

Why use it?
To establish a common method for a team to creatively and efficiently generate a high volume of ideas on any topic by creating a process that is free of criticism and judgment.

What does it do?

• Encourages open thinking when a team is stuck in "same old way" thinking
• Gets all team members involved and enthusiastic so that a few people don't dominate the whole group
• Allows team members to build on each other's creativity while staying focused on their joint mission

How do I do it?
There are two major methods for brainstorming.

• Structured. A process in which each team member gives ideas in turn.
• Unstructured. A process in which team members give ideas as they come to mind.

Either method can be done silently or aloud.


>>> Continue Reading PART II

Affinity Diagram - Gathering & grouping ideas II

How do I do it?
1. Phrase the issue under discussion in a full sentence

"What are the issue involved in planning fun family vacations?"

Tip From the start, reach consensus on the choice of words you will use. Neutral statements work well, but positive, negative, and solution-oriented questions also work.

2. Brainstorm at atleast 20 ideas or issues
 a) Follow guidelines for brainstorming.
 b) Record each idea on a Post-it™ note in bold, large print to make it visible 4-6 feet away. Use at minimum, a noun and verb. Avoid using single words, For to seven words word well.

Tip A "typical" Affinity has 40-60 items; it is not unusual to have 100-200 ideas.

3. Without talking: sort ideas simultaneously into 5-10 related groupings
 a) Move Post-it™ notes where they fit best for you; don't ask, simply move any notes that you think belong in another grouping.
 b) Sorting will slow down or stop when each person feels sufficiently comfortable with the groupings.

Illustration Note: There are 5 to 10 more groupings of ideas in a typical Affinity Diagram

Tip Sort in silence to focus on the meaning behind and connections among all ideas, instead of emotions and "history" that often arise in discussions.
Tip As an idea is moved back and forth, try to see the logical connection that the other person is making. If this movement continues beyond a reasonable point, agree to create a duplicate Post-it™.
Tip It is okay for some notes to stand alone. These "loners" can be as important as others that fit into grouping naturally.

4. For each grouping, create summary or header cards using consensus
 a) Gain a quick team consensus on a word or phrase that captures the central idea / theme of each grouping; record it on a Post-it™ note and place it at the top of each grouping. These are draft header cards.
 b) For each grouping, agree on a concise sentence that combines the grouping's central idea and what all of the specific Post-it™ note add to that idea; record it and replace the draft version. This is a final header card.
c) Divide large groupings into subgroups as needed and create appropriate subheaders.
d) Draw the final Affinity Diagram connecting all finalized header cards with their groupings.

Illustration Note: There are 5 to 10 groupings of ideas in a typical Affinity. This is a partial Affinity.

Tip Spend the extra time needed to do solid header cards. Strive to capture the essence of all of the ideas in each grouping. Shortcuts here can greatly reduce the effectiveness of the final Affinity Diagram.

Variations
Another popular form of this tool, called the KJ Method, was developed by the Japanese anthropologist Jiro Kawakita while he was doing fieldwork in the 1950s. The KJ Method, identified with Kawakita's initials, helped the anthropologist and his students gather and analyze data. The KJ Method differs from the Affinity Diagram described above in that the cards are face-based and go through a highly structured refinement process before the final diagram is created.

Affinity Diagram - Gathering & grouping ideas I

Why use it?
To allow a team to creatively generate a large number of ideas /  issue and then organize and summarize natural groupings among them to understand the essence of a problem and breakthrough solutions.

What does it do?

• Encourages creativity by everyone on the team at all phases of the process
• Breaks down longstanding communication barriers
• Encourages non-traditional connections among ideas / issues
• Allows breakthroughts to emerge naturally, even on long-standing issues
• Encourages "ownershop" of results that emerge because the team creates both the detailed input and general results
• Overcomes "team paralysis," which is brought on by an overwhelming array of option and lack of consensus

>>> Continue Reading PART II

Activity Network Diagram(AND) - Scheduling sequential & simultaneous tasks : PART III

Variations
The constructed example shown in this section is in the Activity on Node (AON) format.

Another widely used, schedule-monitoring method is the Gantt chart. It is a simple tool that uses horizontal bars to show which tasks can be done simultaneously over the life of the project. Its primary disadvantage is that it cannot show which tasks are specifically dependent on each other.

Activity Network Diagram(AND) - Scheduling sequential & simultaneous tasks : PART II

How do I do it?

1. Assemble the right team of people with first and knowledge of the subtasks.

2. Brainstorm or document all the tasks needed to complete a project. Record on Post-its™.

3. Find the first task that must be done, and place the card on the extreme left of a large work surface

4. Ask: "Are there any tasks that can be done simultaneously with task#1?"

• If there are simultaneous tasks, place the task card above or below task#1. It not, go to the next step.

5. Ask, "What is the next task that must be done? Can others be done simultaneously?"

• Repeat this questioning process until all the recorded tasks are placed in sequence and in parallel.

Tip At each step always ask, "Have we forgotten any other needed tasks that could be done simultaneously?"

6. Number each task, draw the connecting arrows, and agree on a realistic time for the completion of each task.

• Record the completion time on the bottom half of each card.

Tip Be sure to agree on the standard time unit for each task, e.g., days, weeks. Elapsed time is easier than "dedicated" time, e.g., 8 hours of dedicated time versus 8 hours over a two-week period(elapsed time).

7. Determine the project's critical path

• Any delay to a task on the critical path will be added to the project's completion time, unless another task is accelerated or eliminated. Likewise, the project's completion time can be reduced by accelerating any task on the critical path.
• There are two options for calculating the total critical path and the tasks included within it. 

Longest cumulative path. Identity total project completion time. Add up each path of connected activities. The longest cumulative path is the quickest possible implementation time. This is the project's critical path.


Calculated slack. Calculate the "slack" in the starting and completion times of each task. This identifies which tasks must be completed exactly as scheduled (on the critical path) and those that have some latitude.

Finding the critical path by calculating the slack

Tip Determining the longest cumulative path is simpler than calculating the slack, but can quickly become confusing in larger ANDs

The calculated slack option determines the total project and slack times; and therefore the total project time and critical path are identified" automatically."

>>> Continue Reading PART III

Activity Network Diagram(AND) - Scheduling sequential & simultaneous tasks : PART I

Why use it?
To allow a team to find both the most efficient path and realistic schedule for the completion of any project by graphically showing total completion time, the necessary sequence of tasks, those tasks that can be done simultaneously, and the critical tasks to monitor.

What does it do?

• All team members have a chance to give a realistic picture of what their piece of the plan requires, based on real experience
• Everyone sees why he or she is critical to the overall success of the project
• Unrealistic implementation timetables are discovered and adjusted in the planning stage.
• The entire team can think creatively about how to shorten tasks that are bottlenecks.
• The entire team can focus its attention and scarce resources on the truly critical tasks.

>>> Continue Reading PART II

What do the different position of the runners mean?

Getting Ready - An important.first step is to select the right tool for the situation. When you are the "getting ready" position of the runner, expect a brief description of the tool's purpose and a list of benefits in using the tool.

Cruising - When you see this runner, expect to find construction guidelines and interpretation tips. This is the action phase that provides you with step-by-step instructions and helpful formulas.

Finishing the Course - When you see this runner, expect to see the tool in its final form. There are examples from manufacturing, administration/service, and daily life to illustrate the widespread applications of each tool.

Using The Quality Tools

Memory Jogger™
This guide is a convenient and quick on-the-job reference.

The alphabetical table of contents plus the four selector charts presented on the previous pages help you to put your finger on any tool within seconds.

Coach's Guide
More information and examples of application can be found in the Coach's Guide, a guide for facilitators who support teams in learning to apply the tools effectively.

The Coach's Guide lists addition material such as software for creating flowcharts, videotapes and CD-ROM to accommodate individual learning styles.

Quality Action Learning (QAL)
The tools can only be applied effectively in a learning organization. QAL workshops support teams on their road to Total Quality. These workshops are management-led, team-based and directly relevant to the work process, Actual work issues are dealt with and practical solutions are reached.

Tool Selector Chart

This chart organizes the tools by typical improvement situations, such as working with numbers, with ideas, or in teams.

PDCA Tool Selector Chart

The PDCA Cycle

Plan : where you want to be and what you need to do to get there.

Do : what you planned on doing.

Check : to see if the objective was achieved.

Act : on the information. Insofar as you were successful, standardize; where you see room for improvement, recycle.

Continuous Improvement Strive for Excellence

Striving for excellence means systermatically examining daily work and continually improving processes, following a clear discipline for problem solving and learning from mistakes

The basis for process improvement is the "Plan, Do, Check, Act" cycle. The emphasis is on conscious planing and prevention rather than on fire-fighting. That's what the Quality Tolls help us to do.

The Quality Tools make data and ideas visible, uncover patterns in numbers, focus attention and build consensus among team member.

The Quality Tools help a team to:

• achieve zero defects in all products and services
• prevent all waste of material, time and effort
• reduce variability in processes
• reduce the cycle time of processes